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A Bioarchaeological Study of African American Health and Mortality in the Post-Emancipation U.S. South
- Maria Franklin, Samuel M. Wilson
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- Journal:
- American Antiquity / Volume 85 / Issue 4 / October 2020
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- 11 August 2020, pp. 652-675
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- October 2020
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After emancipation, most African Americans remained tethered to agricultural economies, while others migrated to cities seeking better opportunities. Although bioarchaeologists have made significant interventions in researching people of African descent, there are relatively few published comparative studies that address their morbidity and mortality after slavery. This study compares the bioarchaeological evidence for rural and urban southern United States populations to address disparities in health and longevity. It considers the biological effects of racism, including the health impacts of poverty, disease, and malnourishment. Although historians and demographers argue that urban life was especially detrimental to health, the results of this research suggest greater complexity in African American well-being. Whereas urban adults had higher midlife mortality and reduced longevity compared to their rural counterparts, both rural and urban children experienced poor health. Rural child mortality and morbidity varied significantly, suggesting differences in diet and disease exposure across rural communities. With regard to gender, rural and urban women died at younger ages than men. This disparity in mortality is partly attributed to black women's working and reproductive lives within the context of racism and gender inequality.
Creativity
- Samuel Franklin
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- Journal:
- Business History Review / Volume 90 / Issue 4 / Winter 2016
- Published online by Cambridge University Press:
- 16 March 2017, pp. 694-701
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- Winter 2016
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Contributors
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- By Rose Teteki Abbey, K. C. Abraham, David Tuesday Adamo, LeRoy H. Aden, Efrain Agosto, Victor Aguilan, Gillian T. W. Ahlgren, Charanjit Kaur AjitSingh, Dorothy B E A Akoto, Giuseppe Alberigo, Daniel E. Albrecht, Ruth Albrecht, Daniel O. Aleshire, Urs Altermatt, Anand Amaladass, Michael Amaladoss, James N. Amanze, Lesley G. Anderson, Thomas C. Anderson, Victor Anderson, Hope S. Antone, María Pilar Aquino, Paula Arai, Victorio Araya Guillén, S. Wesley Ariarajah, Ellen T. Armour, Brett Gregory Armstrong, Atsuhiro Asano, Naim Stifan Ateek, Mahmoud Ayoub, John Alembillah Azumah, Mercedes L. García Bachmann, Irena Backus, J. Wayne Baker, Mieke Bal, Lewis V. Baldwin, William Barbieri, António Barbosa da Silva, David Basinger, Bolaji Olukemi Bateye, Oswald Bayer, Daniel H. Bays, Rosalie Beck, Nancy Elizabeth Bedford, Guy-Thomas Bedouelle, Chorbishop Seely Beggiani, Wolfgang Behringer, Christopher M. Bellitto, Byard Bennett, Harold V. Bennett, Teresa Berger, Miguel A. Bernad, Henley Bernard, Alan E. Bernstein, Jon L. Berquist, Johannes Beutler, Ana María Bidegain, Matthew P. Binkewicz, Jennifer Bird, Joseph Blenkinsopp, Dmytro Bondarenko, Paulo Bonfatti, Riet en Pim Bons-Storm, Jessica A. Boon, Marcus J. Borg, Mark Bosco, Peter C. Bouteneff, François Bovon, William D. Bowman, Paul S. Boyer, David Brakke, Richard E. Brantley, Marcus Braybrooke, Ian Breward, Ênio José da Costa Brito, Jewel Spears Brooker, Johannes Brosseder, Nicholas Canfield Read Brown, Robert F. Brown, Pamela K. Brubaker, Walter Brueggemann, Bishop Colin O. Buchanan, Stanley M. Burgess, Amy Nelson Burnett, J. Patout Burns, David B. Burrell, David Buttrick, James P. Byrd, Lavinia Byrne, Gerado Caetano, Marcos Caldas, Alkiviadis Calivas, William J. Callahan, Salvatore Calomino, Euan K. Cameron, William S. Campbell, Marcelo Ayres Camurça, Daniel F. Caner, Paul E. Capetz, Carlos F. Cardoza-Orlandi, Patrick W. Carey, Barbara Carvill, Hal Cauthron, Subhadra Mitra Channa, Mark D. Chapman, James H. Charlesworth, Kenneth R. Chase, Chen Zemin, Luciano Chianeque, Philip Chia Phin Yin, Francisca H. Chimhanda, Daniel Chiquete, John T. Chirban, Soobin Choi, Robert Choquette, Mita Choudhury, Gerald Christianson, John Chryssavgis, Sejong Chun, Esther Chung-Kim, Charles M. A. Clark, Elizabeth A. Clark, Sathianathan Clarke, Fred Cloud, John B. Cobb, W. Owen Cole, John A Coleman, John J. Collins, Sylvia Collins-Mayo, Paul K. Conkin, Beth A. Conklin, Sean Connolly, Demetrios J. Constantelos, Michael A. Conway, Paula M. Cooey, Austin Cooper, Michael L. Cooper-White, Pamela Cooper-White, L. William Countryman, Sérgio Coutinho, Pamela Couture, Shannon Craigo-Snell, James L. Crenshaw, David Crowner, Humberto Horacio Cucchetti, Lawrence S. Cunningham, Elizabeth Mason Currier, Emmanuel Cutrone, Mary L. Daniel, David D. Daniels, Robert Darden, Rolf Darge, Isaiah Dau, Jeffry C. Davis, Jane Dawson, Valentin Dedji, John W. de Gruchy, Paul DeHart, Wendy J. 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- The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity
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- 05 August 2012
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Contents
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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Frontmatter
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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Index
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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Preface
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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Summary
Aunt Celia was a remarkable woman. She passed away peacefully in her 98th year. As a child she served as translator and intermediary to the new world when my father's family arrived from the old country with precious little knowledge of English or modernity. All her life she read armfuls of books lugged home from the public library. She boarded a streetcar and two buses each day to attend Los Angeles High School where she could learn Latin, unavailable at her local high school. By the age of 17 she had graduated from normal school and taken her first teaching job in Nevada, too young to be employed by the Los Angeles Unified School District. She contributed hard-earned dollars to help support the family and purchased its first automobile. She was the rudder that guided the ship of immigrants – so able, so strong, yet so fragile and afraid.
Celia spent her life teaching in public schools where few students or administrators recognized her gifts. She never married, never bore children, traveled little, purchased less, and pinched pennies so tightly that she died rich as well as unhappy. How ironic that dear Aunt Celia should be the source of my interest in happiness.
In the early 1960s when I was a graduate student, Celia sent me a copy of Desmond Morris's The Naked Ape. I loved the book, and its sequel The Human Zoo.
11 - Virtue and Emotion: Recent Psychological Views
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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Why, then, ‘tis none to you; for there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so.
Act 2, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's HamletThere are a number of developments in contemporary psychology that have embraced Aristotle's view of virtue and its importance to a good life. In this chapter I will discuss some recent variations of Aristotle's virtue/emotion theory and how they have been used to treat unhappiness. Although unhappiness is not the main concern of this book, it is to some degree the flip side of our primary interest, and an understanding of one can add to our knowledge of the other.
Cognitive psychology started to blossom in the 1960s as Behaviorism's grip on the discipline weakened. Recognizing the value of John Watson's claim that he could make each of us a “doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief” by controlling the environment, and also acknowledging Freud's idea that human problems stem from irrational motives and childhood trauma, cognitive psychology offered still another view – a return to Aristotle.
ALBERT ELLIS'S ABC MODEL
Albert Ellis, one of the early cognitive therapists, proposed that we usually feel the way we think. Therefore, changing thoughts can change feelings! Ellis and his colleagues summarize this idea in their ABC model.
Irrational beliefs often lay behind our suffering and unhappiness. By becoming more rational we improve our lives.
The Psychology of Happiness
- A Good Human Life
- Samuel S. Franklin
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When Thomas Jefferson placed 'the pursuit of happiness' along with life and liberty in The Declaration of Independence he was most likely referring to Aristotle's concept of happiness, or eudaimonia. Eudaimonia is not about good feelings but rather the fulfilment of human potentials. Fulfilment is made possible by virtue; the moderation of desire and emotion by reason. The Psychology of Happiness was the first book to bring together psychological, philosophical, and physiological theory and research in support of Aristotle's view. It examines the similarity between Aristotle's concept of virtue and modern cognitive theories of emotion. It discusses the discovery of human potentials, the development of virtue and its neurological basis, the mistaken idea that fulfilment is selfish, and several other issues related to the pursuit of a good human life.
7 - Introduction to Virtue
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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Consider your origin; you were not born to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge.
Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy (ca. 1315)The Ancient Greeks believed that all living things have soul. “Soul” had little or no religious significance back then; it just came with life, all life. Ants and birds, as well as humans, had it, at least as long as they were alive. It is true, however, that souls differed. Human soul was unique because it could reason. Remember, reason was our ergon, our defining human characteristic. Cats and cattle can feed themselves, move around, and they can see and hear; they have life and they have soul but they cannot think. We alone understand that “All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, therefore, Socrates is mortal.” Because of our ability to reason we are a little closer to the divine.
But we are far from perfect. We also have a powerful irrational side. The appetitive part of our soul that houses desires and emotions is often less than reasonable. Fortunately, and this is very important, the irrational side of us is able to listen to reason and take its advice. The irrational in us can be influenced by the rational. Aristotle's moral virtue is just that: irrational desires, emotions, and actions coming under the influence of reason.
8 - Some of the More Important Moral Virtues
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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There is but one law for all, namely, that law which governs all law, the law of our Creator, the law of humanity, justice, equity – the law of nature, and of nations.
Edmund Burke, On the Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1794Practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue and part of the rational soul. Ideally, it thinks well as it guides desire, emotion, and behavior according to principle and circumstance. Practical wisdom grasps principles like fairness, courage, and friendship, and deliberates about the wisest action for the particular circumstances. It can lead us wisely toward the real goods necessary for fulfillment, or it can mislead us by foolish reasoning. Practical wisdom is a fundamental virtue, the bedrock of all the moral virtues and clearly indispensable to a good life.
The moral virtues to be discussed in this chapter are different from practical wisdom because they are only slightly rational and can be irrational at times. Moral virtues, you will recall, are really irrational emotions and their correlated actions, under the sway of prudence or practical wisdom, however gifted or feeble that may be. Moral virtues are hexes, habitual ways of responding that are developed over a lifetime. They are in a sense automatic, as the term “habit” would imply, but at the same time they are semi-conscious and semi-cognitively directed by the intelligence of practical wisdom. The moral virtues determine the way we live, for better or for worse.
14 - The Development of Virtue
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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It makes no small difference, then, whether we form habits of one kind or of another from our very youth; it makes a very great difference, or rather all the difference.
Aristotle, Nicomachaen Ethics, Book II Chapter 1.In 1924, after John B. Watson declared that Behaviorism could train any child to become a “doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,” he added the following qualification: “please note that when this experiment is made I am to be allowed to specify the way the children are to be brought up and the type of world they have to live in.”
Watson admitted that he was exaggerating but was trying to make a point: The world we live in is critical to our development and the early years are especially important. Although Aristotle would have been appalled by Watson's methods of child rearing, he would have agreed about the importance of the environment and the early years. For Aristotle a good life requires virtue and childhood is where virtue begins.
Remember, virtue includes desire, thinking, feeling, and action (see Figure 9.1). For each of us there is an optimal response to every situation. We might respond differently yet correctly. Because “right action” depends on individual differences and circumstances, teaching specific correct behaviors is almost impossible. How could we ever anticipate every situation and take into account our manifold differences as well? The possibilities are endless. Virtue can not be reduced to a set of behaviors or even rules.
13 - Emotional Intelligence
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but is capable of becoming so; and in those who love it disinterestedly it has become so, and is desired and cherished, not as a means to happiness, but as a part of their happiness.
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) Utilitarianism, Liberty & Representative GovernmentThere is another area of contemporary psychology that is supportive of Aristotle's thoughts on virtue. We are familiar with the concepts of intelligence and IQ but there are now counterparts of these ideas in the world of emotion. We can be smart in different ways. Our success in life depends not only on our IQ but also on our emotional intelligence or EI, which has been getting a lot of recognition lately.
The idea of intelligence testing goes at least back to Darwin's cousin, Sir Francis Galton, who developed tests of sensory acuity. Believing that keen senses could take in more of the world and therefore better inform the mind, Galton developed the first psychological tests. Later formulations of intelligence replaced sensory acuity with the ability to reason. Today's IQ tests are variations of those alternatives to Galton's acuity tests.
More recently, psychologist Howard Gardener has argued for different kinds of intelligences. He recognizes the traditional linguistic–verbal and logical–mathematical abilities of the standardized intelligence tests but also adds visual–spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, musical–rhythmic, and interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities as well. Just recently Gardener added a naturalist capacity to the list.
10 - Early Psychological Views of Virtue and Emotion
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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- 05 June 2012
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- 14 September 2009, pp 95-101
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Summary
Habit is thus the enormous fly-wheel of society, its most precious conservative agent.
William James (1900) Principles of PsychologyAristotle's view of emotion is actually the prototype of what psychologists now call the “cognitive theory of emotion.” There are currently several variations of this approach, some of which will be reviewed in the next chapter. However, the earlier classical approaches to emotion offered by Sigmund Freud and William James are still important and deserving of some discussion.
Terms like “moral virtue”, “practical wisdom,” “soul,” and the like, were dropped from all but philosophical discourse a long time ago. But the ideas to which these terms refer are still very much with us. “Virtue ethics” has always been a part of psychology. In the following pages I discuss emotion and virtue from a psychological point of view rather than in the terms of philosophy.
It seems appropriate to begin with the most famous of all psychologists, Sigmund Freud. Freud was a scholar of many disciplines and familiar with Ancient Greek thought. Greek terms like ego, Eros, and Oedipus are fundamental to his theory. One of Freud's most important contributions was his re-statement of Plato's analysis of soul. Two thousand years ago Plato divided the human soul into three parts: the appetitive, the spirited, and the rational. Of course, appetite refers to desire and needs. The spirited part of Plato's soul referred to the action/behavior of many living things symbolized by the spirited horse.
16 - The Polis
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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- 05 June 2012
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To establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty.
The Constitution of the United States of AmericaThe parents, teachers, and friends who are responsible for virtue development in children are part of a larger community that Aristotle called the polis. The polis is necessary for our well-being and even for our very survival. It is only in the polis that we can obtain the goods we need to actualize potentials. We need food from the grocery store, books from the library, heat from the utility company, and police protection from those who would harm us. Of course, we can obtain some goods ourselves, alone in the wilderness, but the fact that almost all of us choose to live among others testifies to the need for the polis. Yes, it is common to want to be away and free from the maddening crowd for a short time but we don't want to remain there for very long. Our home is with others.
Whether we prefer the tranquil village or the teeming metropolis, we wish to be with our kind. And to live together we must agree to certain ethical principles, at least at some minimal level.
References
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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- 14 September 2009, pp 169-176
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3 - Aristotle's Ethics
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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Reason is God's crowning gift to man.
Sophocles (496–406 B.C.)There are 54 volumes in the Great Books of the Western World series edited by Robert Maynard Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. Charles Darwin's writings are found in Volume 49 and Sigmund Freud has the last word in Volume 54. Some people may take these two intellectual giants for granted and others may doubt their sanity, but all must admit that Darwin's and Freud's inclusion with the likes of Plato, Copernicus, Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Newton counts for something. Darwin and Freud have much in common, but from the perspective of this book, one shared idea stands out: Humankind is something less than divine. To put it even more strongly, humans are very much like animals. Pointing out our irrationality is Freud's major contribution. He reminds us that our major motives derive from irrational sex and aggression urges which often cause us to make bad decisions and to misbehave. If you doubt the influence of sex and aggression motives, just turn on the TV tonight.
When these urges lead us to irrational behavior, we frequently excuse ourselves by proclaiming “I'm only human.” The idea of our inherent irrationality is very much ingrained in us. Darwin says that we're very much like animals and Freud says that we are driven by unconscious motives that make life really interesting but also very troublesome. One can expect only so much from our species; we are, after all, only human.
2 - Happiness as Fulfillment
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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The great law of culture is: Let each become all that he was created capable of being.
Thomas Carlyle, Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 1827The legal right to the pursuit of happiness probably means that Americans are granted the freedom to become all that they might become. While America embraced this wonderful thought at its founding, it was hardly a new idea. Aristotle proposed it almost 2,500 years ago, but the notion of fulfillment has rarely been made explicit or become very popular. It goes by different names such as self-realization or actualization as well as fulfillment, and it is a rather abstract and difficult idea. It is probably easier to think of happiness in terms of pleasure or money or goods – a leisurely vacation, winning the lottery, or a nice home.
I want to explore the idea of fulfillment further but before doing so, it might be helpful to take a brief look at the life of its originator.
Born in Macedonia, just north of what is now Greece, Aristotle was the son of the King's physician. At the age of about 17 Aristotle traveled to Athens to study at Plato's Academy. He remained with Plato for about 20 years until his mentor's death. While Aristotle and Plato had much in common, they did differ on one very important issue. For Plato, truth was to be found in a transcendent world of ideas that is accessed through reason.
5 - Finding Potentials
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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Know thyself.
Socrates (469–399 b.c.)Aristotle's idea that living things have potentials in need of actualization is the bedrock of Humanistic psychology as well as the basis of the U.S. Army commercial that urges young people to “be all that you can be.” The notion of individual fulfillment, however, has seen its ups and downs.
Following the Classical Greek period of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Athens was conquered by the Roman Empire. Constantine, one of the early Roman emperors, accepted Christianity as did most of the later emperors and within a few hundred years almost the whole of Europe was ruled by the Church. For most of Christianity's first 1,000 years, the idea of fulfillment had nothing to do with individuality or human potentials but rather eternal salvation; that is, happiness is not of this world but lies only in the next.
Psychologist Roy Baumeister reviewed the history of the concept of self and found that with the exception of a just a few writers, interest in human uniqueness was absent during the Middle Ages and did not reappear until the Romantic era of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Baumeister notes, “The Romantic era is perhaps best known for its quests to replace Christian salvation with viable, secular images of human fulfillment in life on earth.” Elsewhere he says, “The Romantic era is well known for its experimentation with new ideas of human fulfillment. These focused on work, especially in art and literature, and subjective passion, especially love. In addition, a vague but important interest in the cultivation of ones inner qualities emerged.”
12 - The Physiological Basis of Virtue
- Samuel S. Franklin, California State University, Fresno
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- The Psychology of Happiness
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- 05 June 2012
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- 14 September 2009, pp 115-120
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